European Renaissance and Enlightenment

The impact of the Arab Culture on European Renaissance

2007-11-29T16:22:00.000-08:00

http://www.islamset.com/islam/culture/impact_of.html

The impact of the Arab Culture on European Renaissance

In his article "The Cultural Contribution of Islam to Christendom," T .C. Young says: "The great cultural debt we have for Islam since we, Christians, used, within this millenium, to travel to Islamic capitals and to Moslem teachers to learn from them arts, sciences, and the philosophy of human life should always be brought to mind. Amongst this is our classical heritage which Islam preserved in the best way possible until Europe was once again able to understand it and to look after it. All this must blend into the spirit with which we, Christians, turn towards Islam, carrying to it our cultura1, spiritual gifts. Let's then go to it with a feeling of equality to pay Islam an old debt. We will not overstep the bounds of justice if we pay back what we owe Islam by winning it over. We will be true Christians only if we forget about the conditions of exchange, and we give for the sake of love and gratitude(14)."

The Arab-Islamic culture played its leading part in the best way possible in building world scientific renaissance. Arab and Moslem scholars translated Greek heritage and other kinds of scientific heritage which had preceded them in history into the Arabic language which was the language of science and culture. Arab and Moslem scholars left their mark on the European

Renaissance. The imprint of the Arab-Islamic culture was predominant, noticeable and effective in many scientific, intellectual and cultural fields. Arab and Muslim scholars invented the numerical system; the figure Zero; the decimal system; the theory of evolution-one hundred years before Darwin; pulmonary circulation -three centuries before Harvey. They discovered gravity and the relationship between weight, speed and distance severa1 centuries before Newton; they measured the speed of light, calculated the angles of reflection and refraction, computed the circumference of the earth, and determined the dimensions of heavenly bodies. They invented astronomical instruments, discovered high seas, and laid down the foundations of chemistry.

One might say that, in general, the Arab-Islamic culture was at the center between ancient sciences and cultures and the European Renaissance. The Arab- Islamic thought and the Arab-Islamic culture are chains of connected links extending from ancient civilizations -Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Chinese to the civi1izations of Greece and Alexandria -all the way to the Islamic era whose scholars were influenced by their predecessors and who, in turn, influenced those who followed them, namely the scholars of the European Renaissance. These scholars studied the works of their Arab counterparts in their books which were translated into Latin and European languages(15).

The Arab-Islamic culture preserved the Greek culture and safeguarded it from loss and destruction. Had it not been for Arab intellectuals and scholars, people would not have been able to get hold of many Greek works, the original version of which was lost. These works were preserved in Arabic. The West had been very busy studying the Arab culture even after its prestige declined in Spain, two or more generations later, until it reached modern times. The Arab-Islamic culture fascinated a great many Westerner, for translation from Arabic did not cease during and after the Renaissance in spite of the direct Contact with the Greek world and civilization as of the middle of the thirteenth century A.D. when Greek books began to be translated directly into Latin without help from Arabic translations. The Arab culture had its Own worth and personality. It produced many a thing which the Greek culture could not produce in all fields: additions, commentaries, inventions, and Arab discoveries unknown to the Greeks(16).

The translation movement from the Arab- Islamic culture, which helped Europe pullout of the dark Middle Ages into the modern enlightened age, was not confined to the translation of ancient knowledge only -Greek, Indian, Babylonian. and Egyptian -from Arabic books into Latin. Christian Europe also translated purely Arab knowledge and transferred patterns from Islamic civilization and from Islamic faith into its public and
private life. Had the Catholic Church not put its weight behind the Europeans in the Battle of Tours in l4 A.D. (732 Hegira), the Islamic civilization and the Arab culture would have been prevalent in Europe since that early age and church would have spared the world a long, grueling and bitter conflict(17).

The Arab-Islamic culture spread in the Western world. European scholars quaffed from authentic Arab sources, and discovered that they were a great scientific heritage. So they studied and analyzed it. The Arabs and Moslems were the epitome of modern science in every sense of the word. They were the pioneers of modem scientific methods. From the Arab-Islamic culture. European intellectuals and scholars acquired more than just information. They acquired scientific mentality, with all its empirical and inductive character, for they found in the Arab-Islamic heritage the object of their long-cherished wish; they were, therefore, bent on spreading it(18).

It was the dazzle of the magnitude of influence which the Arab-Islamic culture had on European Renaissance, culture and sciences which prompted a German thinker and scientist to come out openly with the truth and say: "That flourishing civilization, whose enlightenment had inundated Europe for many centuries, is truly amazing; for this civilization was not an extension of the vestiges of past civilizations, or of local civilizational skeletons of some importance, or a borrowing from, or an imitation of an existing civilizational mode, as was the case with other cradles of civilization in other countries in the East. It is the Arabs who, with their culture, contrived this magnificent civilization(19)."

While Europe was buried in the darkness of the Middle Ages, the Islamic -civilization (the cradle of the Arab-Islamic culture) was at its apogee. Islam greatly contributed to the advancement of science, medicine and philosophy. As Will Durant said in his book, The Age of Fai1h, "Moslems contributed effectively in all fields. A vicenna was one of the greatest scientists in medicine, al-Razi a most eminent physician, al-Bayruni a most distinguished geographer, Ibn al-Haitham a most celebrated optics scientist, and Ibn Jabir a most famous chemist." Besides, the Arabs were the pioneers of education and teaching. On this point, Durant had this to say, "When Roger Bacon presented his theory in Europe five hundred years after Ibn Jabir, he said that he was indebted to the Maghrebis in Spain who took their knowledge from the Moslems in the East. European Renaissance thinkers and, scholars owed their advent, genius and progress to the giants of the Islamic world(20).

Enlightenment as an Islamic Concept

2007-11-29T16:19:00.000-08:00

http://www.isesco.org.ma/Islam.Today/Eng/19/P1.htm

Enlightenment as an Islamic Concept

By Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri

Introduction :

The imprecision of the word ‘enlightenment’ in term of linguistic and cultural meanings resulted in a confusion that has gone beyond cultural and intellectual contexts and has become a political issue. Enlightenment has therefore been used as an excuse to achieve certain goals that have nothing to do with culture.

This confusion, which was deliberately created by some people, has lead to great errors. It is worth mentioning that the propagation of the term enlightenment has coincided with the failure of material and atheist currents in modern societies, including the Arab and Islamic ones, and that the insistence on using this term coincides with the domination of globalization over cultural and cultural particularities of peoples.

Enlightenment also coincided with the intellectual currents that appeared in the Arabo-Islamic world in the last decades of the 20th century with more intensity than in the previous decades, although it was presented in different terms such as ‘intellectual freedom’, ‘free thought’, ‘the renaissance’. Enlightenment, as a contemporary term, is in part related to neocolonialism.

It is used to mislead the public opinion and create cultural instability and conflicts. This requires rectification and adjustments.

Terminology :

It would be more appropriate to elucidate the issue of enlightenment before we tackle it from an Islamic point of view.

I- Enlightenment as a linguistic term :

In Lissan El Arab (Arab Tongue) of Ibn Mandour, enlightenment means dawn. “Dawn has enlightened” means that the light of day has come. It is also said: “one has prayed at enlightenment time”, that is near dawn.

In Mouaajam Al-Wassit, ‘to enlighten’ means to shed light. People have been enlightened’ means that they have become more cultivated. “God has enlightened one’s heart” means that God has given him/her guidance(1). Enlightenment also means guidance, as in “God guides the believers from darkness to light”. “We resurrect the dead and guide them to light” and “God is the light of the earth and the sky”.

In El Kaffoui’s book Al Koulyate, we read: “Light is the enlightening core. It is the opposite of obscurity”. Guidance, whether it means belief or religion, is one entity. Belief is apparent and religion is a set of rules. As for misguiding, it comes in several ways because of the great number of wrong beliefs(2). This corresponds to Al Kafoui’s idea that light is one unity and obscurity comes in several representations.

In the lexicon of the terms used in the Quran, light is described as: knowledge, truths and proofs that dispel doubt and assert belief in religion(3). Light is not illusions. It is proven truths.

II- Enlightenment as a philosophical term :

The term ‘enlightenment’ appeared in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries to express liberal and bourgeois trends that were characterized by humanist, logical, scientific and empirical reasoning. These trends favored materialism at the expense of religion and used nature and reason instead of theology and mythology to explain natural phenomena and set the rules of the universe(4).

Enlightenment, as a cultural trend, dominated Europe in the 18th century. European intellectuals such as Voltaire, Diderot, Condorset, Holbagh and Picariah promoted it. These intellectuals were influenced by rational philosophers such as Descartes, Spinosa, Leipniz and Lock, who dominated the cultural trends of the 17th and 18th centuries and gave birth to the ‘Age of Reason’.

The Idea of enlightenment can be divided into three categories (reason, nature, progress)(5). These constitute natural philosophy and virtues based on science. The idea of enlightenment appeared in an atheist European environment. It was the enemy of the church, the state, superstition, ignorance and poverty.

Enlightenment philosophers called for a return to nature. In European philosophy, enlightenment meant abandoning old teachings that constituted an authority and a reproduction of life on a rational basis(1).

European enlightenment endeavored to liberate civilization of the church’s dominance and of superstitious beliefs. It sought to achieve the progress of humanity through scientific research(2).

The German philosopher Kant was the first to use the term ‘enlightenment’ to refer to the rationalist movement that started in Europe in the 17th century and flourished in the 18th century, influencing European and non-European civilizations(3).

Enlightenment as a cultural term was therefore born in Europe, bearing European meanings and references. It was also the guideline of a cultural current that dominated Europe at a certain period of its history that was called ‘the ‘Age of Enlightenment’ and was characterized by the emergence of the enlightenment philosophers(4).

The historical context of enlightenment :

We can say that enlightenment is a purely European issue that appeared as a reaction to the church’s dominance over the cultural life in Europe. It was therefore logical that European enlightenment should fight against religion, given the superstition that the church represented. Europe then lived in the age of darkness whereas the Arabo-Islamic world enjoyed cultural prosperity.

As a European concept, enlightenment enlightened Europe after the age of darkness. It is worth mentioning here that only Europe and the West were concerned with the term ‘Mediaeval Ages of Darkness’ after the fall of the Roman Empire in the 4th century. Muslims, on the contrary, have brought light to humanity since the advent of Islam in the 6th century. They brought light back to the East and the West(5).

In Europe, enlightenment was a reaction to the church’s despotism and repression of reason. The Islamic civilization has never experienced such a situation(1).

Logic and rational thinking represented an emancipation of the church and the clergy. Enlightenment rejected the hegemony of religion and feudalism. It adopted the slogan ‘There is no master over the mind but reason’(2). The church’s despotism and repression of intellectual freedom was the driving force behind enlightenment, which makes it a purely European issue that should be studied as such.

This issue was clear in Europe: Church against reason. The church, with its spiritual, financial, political and scientific despotism, stood against political and social reform. ‘Free intellectuals’ were right in opposing the church and its system, but they were wrong in fighting religion and calling for the use of reason instead. God has blessed mankind with mind so that they can know Him, not in order to negate Him(3). Therefore, it is not logical nor scientific to impose the European concept of enlightenment on Arabo-Islamic societies and to resort to pressure –to the point of intellectual terrorism- to impose this concept that does not belong to our Islamic culture and civilization. We will detail this point when we examine enlightenment as referred to in the Quran to explain the Islamic concept of enlightenment.

Enlightenment in the Holy Quran :

The term ‘enlightenment’ was not mentioned in the Quran, but the stem ‘light’ was mentioned 43 times, as in these verses :

-“Allah is the protector of those who have faith: from the depths of darkness He will lead them forth into light. Of those who reject faith, the patrons are the Evil Ones: from light they will lead them forth into the depths of darkness. They will be Companions of the Fire, to dwell therein (forever)”.(4)

-“Wherewith Allah guideth all who seek His good pleasure to ways of peace and safety, and leadeth them out of darkness, by His Will, unto the light, guideth them to a Path that is Straight”(5).

-“O People of the Book! there hath come to you Our Messenger, revealing to you much that ye used to hide in the Book, and passing over much (that is now unnecessary): There hath come to you from Allah a (new) light and a perspicuous Book”(1).

These verses show that bringing mankind out of obscurities (not only one obscurity) to light (not lights) cannot be achieved without God’s guidance to man. An enlightened man is one whom God saves of the darkness of ignorance, non-belief and superstition and brings out to the light of belief, science and true knowledge. In this sense, enlightenment is God’s guidance to man. The Quran, the Bible and the Torah were a light and guidance from God, as in “It was We who revealed the Law (to Moses): therein was guidance and light. By its standard have been judged the Jews, by the Prophets who bowed (as in Islam) to Allah's Will, by the Rabbis and the Doctors of Law: “for to them was entrusted the protection of Allah's Book, and they were witnesses thereto: therefore fear not men, but fear Me, and sell not My Signs for a miserable price. If any do fail to judge by (the light of) what Allah hath revealed, they are (no better than) Unbelievers”(2).

“And in their footsteps We sent Jesus the son of Mary, confirming the Law that had come before him: We sent him the Gospel: therein was guidance and light, and confirmation of the Law that had come before him: a guidance and an admonition to those who fear Allah”.(3)

“Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass; the glass as it were a brilliant star: lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the East nor of the West, whose Oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah doth know all things”(4).

The holy scriptures were messages from God to His prophets to bring mankind out of darkness to light.

In this way, God’s guidance is closely linked to light(5), that is a guidance to Mankind. “Or (the Unbelievers' state) is like the depths of darkness in a vast deep ocean, overwhelmed with billow topped by billow, topped by (dark) clouds: depths of darkness, one above another: if a man stretches out his hand, he can hardly see it! For any to whom Allah giveth not light, there is no light!”(1). We notice here that light is mentioned in the Quran as a singular noun, whereas obscurities are mentioned as plural. This is a very exact description because God is the source of every light. Therefore, light must be singular, unlike obscurities. A man whom God guides to light lives in permanent enlightenment. God’s light is like no other light(2). “Whatever beings there are in the heavens and the earth do prostrate themselves to Allah (acknowledging subjection) - with good-will or in spite of themselves - so do their shadows in the mornings and evenings”(3). In this analogy, God compares non-belief to obscurities and belief to light. In his book entitled ‘The Synthesis of Eloquence’, Essabouni says: “this is one of the best analogies because non-belief is like the obscurity where the confused is lost, and belief is like light, where the confused is guided. Belief is rewarded with paradise and non-belief is punished with hell”. The meanings of the Quran are the best illustration of the Islamic concept of enlightenment.

Enlightenment as an Islamic concept :

The Islamic concept of enlightenment is based on a solid foundation of belief and science. It is a Quranic concept that sheds light on the reality of enlightenment that combines the enlightenment of mind and that of the heart through belief in God and in science. A mind is useless if the light of Islam does not guide it in thought and behavior. Sheikh Mohamed Abdou says: “Islam liberated the mind of its shackles and of slavery. It enabled it to submit to none but God and His teachings”(4). Islamic enlightenment is based on free will and independent intellect. Mohamed Abdou also said: “Mankind have achieved their freedom through free will, opinion and logic. These complete their humanity and help them reach the happiness that God offers them”(5).

The high stature of reason in Islam has made it possible for intellect to play its role in the scientific and cultural spheres in Islamic societies. In this way, the reasons that allowed one institution to dominate in the name of religion have been omitted and the excuses that were used to oppress the freedom of mind have been outdone(1).

For these reasons, the conflicts between science and religion that Europe underwent in the dark mediaeval ages did not take place in Islam. In Europe, these conflicts led to the emergence of the idea of enlightenment. This was a war that free intellectuals, the tenors of the movement of enlightenment, waged against the clergy.

The conflict between science and religion is a Western issue that is proper to the Europeans and their attitude towards the church and religion. This issue was erroneously raised in the Muslim context. There has never been a conflict between Islam and science. Western scientists discovered contradictions between their holy books and scientific facts. Therefore, they opposed their religion. The Quran, on the contrary, does not state facts that are contradictory with science. Many scientific concepts are rather stated in Islam’s holy Book(2).

The issue of European enlightenment, which discredits religion and adopts science and nature to understand the secrets of life and organize society, was erroneously raised in Islamic societies. Western enlightenment was completely opposed to religion and it still adopts the same attitude. Islamic enlightenment, on the contrary, combines belief and science, religion and reason, in a reasonable equilibrium between these components.

Used alone, reason did not enable those who used it to discover the truth. Likewise, those who ignored reason and sought intuition and spiritual knowledge were misled. The Islamic theory of knowledge combines the mind and the heart, the spiritual and the material(3).

Unlike Europe and the West, Islam has never imposed restrictions on reason. Therefore, the European experience cannot apply outside its context(4). Those who seek to apply European enlightenment to an Islamic context only try to mislead people because European enlightenment completely ignores religion. European enlightenment is contradictory with the Islamic one and does not express the Islamic perspective. The reasons behind the decline of the Islamic nation were different from those that led to Europe’s decline during the Dark Ages. The church imposed restrictions on reason and adopted the slogan “believe and do not discuss”. This attitude resulted from an erroneous interpretation of religion of which the clergy claimed to preserve the secrets. Anyone who would discuss the clergy was considered as hallucinating and was “deprived of God’s mercy”, if not killed. This oppression, not religion, propagated obscurity over European thought in the mediaeval ages.

In Islam, all mankind worship one God without intermediaries or tutors. This religion calls for good deeds and for meditation in the universe and the creatures with reason to achieve happiness in life and heaven. It criticizes those who do not use reason.

Islamic enlightenment enlightens with the light of Islam. It promotes the use of reason to understand religion. European enlightenment, on the contrary, rejects religion.

Ignorance is darkness. In Islam, the quest for knowledge liberates man “Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which hath been invoked the name of other than Allah; that which hath been killed by strangling, or by a violent blow, or by a headlong fall, or by being gored to death; that which hath been (partly) eaten by a wild animal; unless ye are able to slaughter it (in due form); that which is sacrificed on stone (altars); (forbidden) also is the division (of meat) by raffling with arrows: that is impiety. This day have those who reject Faith given up all hope of your religion: yet fear them not but fear Me. This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My favour upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion. But if any is forced by hunger, with no inclination to transgression, Allah is indeed Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful”(2).

This is the ultimate degree of Islamic enlightenment.

Islamic enlightenment and contemporary reality :

Islamic enlightenment is not a theory. It is a reality in the life of Muslims. It is a revival movement that aims at achieving the finalities of Islam in the lives of Muslims. It is a renewal of the concept and functions of religion and a bond that unites all Muslims.

An enlightened person cannot deny the urgent need to reform and change Muslim societies through Islamic action and a right understanding of religion. In facing the current reality of the Islamic world, Islamic enlightenment has to tread the right path in order to fulfill its mission. It is not a mere intellectual and cultural activity. It is a rectifying movement that aims to change erroneous ideas about religion and to promote tolerance, love, cooperation, and solidarity in Islamic societies. It encourages the quest for knowledge in order to achieve the real renaissance.

The Islamic world is now at the crossroads, and Muslims should combine their efforts to achieve their renaissance through the respect of the principles of their religion. Many obstacles impede these efforts, but they can be removed through firm will. Official and public institutions, universities in particular, should join these efforts. Islamic enlightenment is not limited to religious and human science. It covers the intellectual, scientific and cultural areas of Muslim societies. Mastering science and technology is the core of Islamic enlightenment because it sets the mind to work and uses the skills that God has bestowed on mankind. Muslim intellectuals should use these abilities to achieve progress, in an enlightened endeavor.

Our enlightened understanding of the issues and problems of society is the fruit of firm belief. The Islamic approach to Muslim reality should be elaborated on this basis.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

(1) Mouaajam Al-Wassit of the Arabic Language, Cairo, vol. 2, p. 962.

(2) Al Koulyate Dictionary of Linguistic Terminology, Abou El Bakaa El Kafoui, p. 909, Arrissala editions. Beirut.

(3) The lexicon of the terms used in the Quran, vol. 6, p. 172.

(4) The Encyclopedia of General Islamic Concepts, vol. 2000, p. 169.

(5) The Encyclopedia of Philosophy and philosophers, Dr. Abdelmouniim Hanafi, vol. 1, p. 405, Madbouli Library, Cairo.

(1) Ibid., p. 405.

(2) Religion, Philosophy and Enlightenment, Dr. Mahmoud Hamdi Zakzouk, p. 79, Dar El-Maarif, Cairo 1996.

(3) Ibid., p. 79.

(4) Ibid., p. 80.

(5) The Battle of Terminology between the West and Islam, Dr. Mohamed Omara, p. 54, Cairo 1997.

(1) Maalamat Al-Islam, Dr. Anouar Al-Joundi, p. 61, Beirut 1982.

(2) Ibid., p. 54.

(3) ‘The Issue of Enlightenment In the Islamic World’, Mohamed Qotb,

p. 72, 1999.

(4) Al-Baqarah, verse 257.

(5) Al-Maeda, verse 16.

(1) Al-Maeda, verse 15.

(2) Al-Maeda, verse 46.

(3) Al-Maeda, verse 44.

(4) Al-Maeda, verse 44.

(5) Nour, verse 35.

(1) Al Koulyate, p. 909.

(2) Nour, verse 40.

(3) Erraad, verse 16.

(4) The Synthesis of Eloquence, vol. 1 p. 146.

(5) The complete works of Sheikh Mohamed Abdou, vol. 3, p. 455.

(1) Ibid., p. 455 – 456.

(2) Maalamat Al-Islam, Anouar Al Joundi, vol. 2, p. 15.

(3) Ibid., Book 2. p. 20.

(4) Ibid., Book 3. p. 117.

(1) Al-Maeda, verse 3.

(2) Question of ethics : Contribution to ethical criticism of Western modernism by Dr. Taha Abdurrahman, p. 172, Arab Cultural Center, Casablanca, 2000.

European Renaissance and Enlightenment and Islam

2007-11-29T16:18:00.000-08:00

http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=European+Renaissance+and+Enlightenment%2C+islam&fr=yfp-t-501&toggle=1&cop=mss&ei=UTF-8

European Renaissance and Enlightenment, islam

Hellenistic religion

2007-11-17T20:32:00.000-08:00

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_religion

Hellenistic religion comprises any of the various systems of beliefs and practices of the Eurasian peoples who lived under the influence of ancient Greek culture during the Hellenistic period and the Roman Empire (ca. 300 BCE to 300 CE). The Hellenistic period constitutes one of the most creative periods in the history of religions. It can be described as a time of spiritual revolution in the Greco-Roman world, where old cults died or were completely transformed, and where new religions were born.

Religion saw significant transformations, morphing Classical Greek polytheism into more abstract and philosophical terms, evolving into Neoplatonism by the 3rd century. Mystery religions remained popular, indeed the Hellenistic period may be taken to extend into the Roman period, since the Roman Empire was affected by Hellenism to the point of assimilation, re-casting their Ancient Roman religion in Hellenistic terms by interpretatio romana of Greek concepts, until the abolition of the Eleusinian Mysteries in 392. The Hellenistic period saw the rise of Mithraism, influenced by a Hellenistic flair for Persia, and according to David Ulansey by astrological speculation related to the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes in the 2nd century BCE. Hellenism was fond of astrology in general, and the classical Zodiac, ascribed to the Chaldeans by the same sympathy for oriental mysticism that gave Mithras his popularity and furthered the rise of Gnosticism. Hellenistic religion is the context in which Early Christianity arose and developed, and Christianity as it emerged in the 4th century seamlessly continued many of its characteristics.

Hellenistic philosophy

2007-11-17T20:28:00.000-08:00

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy

Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism.

Hellenistic philosophers

Pyrrho (365-275 BC)
Epicurus (341-270 BC)
Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) (331–278 BC)
Zeno of Citium (333-263 BC)
Cleanthes (331-232 BC)
Timon (320-230 BC)
Arcesilaus (316-232 BC)
Menippus (3rd century BC)
Archimedes (c. 287-212 BC)
Chrysippus (280-207 BC)
Carneades (214-129 BC)
Clitomachus (187-109 BC)
Metrodorus of Stratonicea (late 2nd century BC)
Philo of Larissa (160-80 BC)
Posidonius (135-51 BC)
Antiochus of Ascalon (130-68 BC)
Aenesidemus (1st century BC)
Philo of Alexandria (30 BC - 45 AD)
Agrippa (1st century AD)
Plotinus (205-270 AD)
Porphyry (233-309 AD)
Iamblichus of Chalcis (245-325 AD)

Hellenistic schools of thought

European Renaissance

2007-11-17T20:19:00.000-08:00

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophy

Greek philosophy

Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. In many ways, it had an important influence on modern philosophy, as well as modern science. Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day.

Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Greeks. Defining the difference between the Greek quest for knowledge and the quests of the elder civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians, has long been a topic of study by theorists of civilization. Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of Classics at Swansea University wrote:

"Men were weighing for thousands of years before Archimedes worked out the laws of equilibrium; they must have had practical and intuitional knowledge of the principles involved. What Archimedes did was to sort out the theoretical implications of this practical knowledge and present the resulting body of knowledge as a logically coherent system."

and again:

"With astonishment we find ourselves on the threshold of modern science. Nor should it be supposed that by some trick of translation the extracts have been given a delusive air of modernity. Far from it. The vocabulary of these writings and their style are the source from which our own vocabulary and style have been derived."^[1]

Classic Greek philosophy

Socrates

Socrates, an Athenian philosopher, believed that a person should always try to do well. He believed that one should "know thyself." This is evidenced by disobeying a bad command. He made his most important contribution to Western thought through his method of inquiry. In addition, he also taught many famous Greek philosophers. His most famous pupil was Plato. However, since Socrates discussed ideas that upset many people (some in high positions), he was given a choice to be banished from Athens, or to be sentenced to death by drinking poison hemlock. He chose to drink the poison, perhaps because he could not stand the thought of being banished from his home. The ironic thing about this is that during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants he was often threatened, but survived despite his continued protests for democracy. When democracy came, he was executed for corrupting their young children. Most of what we know about Socrates came from Plato as Socrates wrote nothing down.

Plato and Aristotle

Aristotle, known as Aristoteles in Latin and many other languages (but Aristote in French and Aristotele in Italian), (384 BC - March 7, 322 BC) has, along with Plato, the reputation of one of the two most influential philosophers in Western thought. Their works, although connected in many fundamental ways, differ considerably in both style and substance. Plato wrote several dozen philosophical dialogues—arguments in the form of conversations, usually with Socrates as a participant—and a few letters. Though the early dialogues deal mainly with methods of acquiring knowledge, and most of the last ones with justice and practical ethics, his most famous works expressed a synoptic view of ethics, metaphysics, reason, knowledge, and human life. Predominant ideas include the notion that knowledge gained through the senses always remains confused and impure, and that the contemplative soul that turns away from the world can acquire "true" knowledge. The soul alone can have knowledge of the Forms, the real essences of things, of which the world we see is but an imperfect copy. Such knowledge has ethical as well as scientific import. One can view Plato, with qualification, as an idealist and a rationalist.

Aristotle was one of Plato's students, but placed much more value on knowledge gained from the senses, and would correspondingly better earn the modern label of empiricist. Thus Aristotle set the stage for what would eventually develop into the scientific method centuries later. The works of Aristotle that still exist today appear in treatise form, mostly unpublished by their author. The most important include Physics, Metaphysics, (Nicomachean) Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul), Poetics, and many others.

Aristotle was a great thinker and philosopher, and was called 'the master' by Avicenna in the following centuries. His views and approaches dominated early Western science for almost 2000 years. As well as philosophy, Aristotle was a formidable inventor, and is credited with many significant inventions and observations.

A very important note here is that Socrates, Aristotle and Plato first studied and received education in Egypt which is something that many writers tend not to disclose, in-fact all of the so called famous Greek Philosophers received all of there initial education and training indirectly or directly from the Egyptian Ancient Mystery System which was the first system of its kind to practice and teach Science, Spirituality, Religion, Nature, The studie of the mind, and the philosophy concerning the creation of the universe. All credit should go to The North Africans not Greek Philosophers.

Hellenistic philosophy

Main article: Hellenistic philosophy

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many different schools of thought developed in the Hellenistic world, and there were Greeks, Romans, Egyptians and Syrians who were responsible for the development of Hellenistic philosophy. Elements of Persian philosophy and Indian philosophy also had an influence. The most notable schools of Hellenistic philosophy were:

Neoplatonism: Plotinus (Egyptian), Ammonius Saccas, Porphyry (Syrian), Iamblichus (Syrian), Proclus
Academic Skepticism: Arcesilaus, Carneades, Cicero (Roman)
Pyrrhonian Skepticism: (?) Pyrrho, Sextus Empiricus
Cynicism: Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes (taught Zeno of Citium, founder of Stoicism)
Stoicism: Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Crates of Mallus (brought Stoicism to Rome c. 170 BCE), Panaetius, Posidonius, Seneca (Roman), Epictetus (Greek/Roman), Marcus Aurelius (Roman)
Epicureanism: Epicurus and Lucretius (Roman)
Eclecticism: (?) Cicero (Roman)

The spread of Christianity through the Roman world loved it in the end of the Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval Philosophy.